In Europe, with a strong traditional class-structure, historians and social scientists identified the political spectrum on the basis of class, with left, right and center representing the working, upper and middle classes. While these cleavages developed at the time of the French revolution, they deepened in the 19th century and both right and left accepted the class nature of their positions. While universal suffrage, the acceptance of democracy and regional and religious division blurred the distinction between the groups, the analysis continued to be applied. The most usual ideologies of left, right and center were socialism, conservatism and liberalism.
[9] Seymour Martin Lipset saw modern political parties as continuing the "Democratic Class Struggle" that led to their creation.
[10]
In America, with its economic system less codified as rigid a structure of hereditary social classes, the political spectrum has been analyzed with a more idealogical emphasis. For example, Louis Hartz identified the mainstream political ideology of America as Lockean liberalism, not lying in a feudal past, and saw the two main opposing forces in American history as
Whig and
Democrat, representing the industrialists and the agriculturalists, but both accepting liberal principals and therefore essentially centrist.
[11] Russell Kirk however argued that the American Revolution had been a
conservative reaction and therefore the term conservative could apply to American politics.
[12]